Moscow [antikvár]

Many centuries went into the development of Moscow. Primitive communes of remote ancestors of the Slavs existed on the site of our capital city as far back as the Neolithic period. Remains of such communes dating back 5,000 years have been found in the vicinity of Lyalovo Village on the Klyazma River and in the city itself in Shchukino district.A well-fortified settlement of the Iron Age has been discovered near the village of Dyakovo on the Moskva River. Dyakovo-type strongholds dating from the 7th century B.C. to the 7th century A.D. have also been found in the Potylikha district of Moscow, on Lenin Hills in the neighbourhood of the Andreyev Streets, and at Nizhniye Kotly. The territory of the Kremlin has also yielded traces of that type of civilization.A study of ancient objects and burial rites indicates that later Dyakovo-type strongholds belonged to Slav tribes. Excavations show the course of development from the Dyakovo period to the time of the Old Russian Chronicles. In the Tver Chronicles of 1147 it was recorded that Prince Yury Dolgoruky "laid the corner-stone of Moscow near the mouth of the Neglinnaya River above the River Yauza". This is the first time Moscow is mentioned in the Chronicles. Long before, however, there was an artisan settlement on Borovitsky Hill. It has been established that in 1080 the settlement had a wood-paved street with a stockade running alongside.The Kremlin with its wooden walls and towers, situated on a hill and encircled by the Moskva and Neglinnaya rivers, became an important strategic point. Moscow stood at the juncture of land and water trade-routes. The town expanded with every year, drawing more and more artisans and tradesmen, who sought protection within its fortified walls. Surrounded by dense woods, the hill settlement was convenient both as living quarters and a defence post.Unique objects produced by the craftsmen of old Russia which were found during excavations are on display at the museums of the Kremlin and at the History Museum, and we can only marvel at the high degree of craftsmanship achieved by the stone-masons, the goldsmiths, the wood-carvers at the beautifully finished wordk on leather. In the fourteenth century Moscow became the capital of Russia's strongest principality, one of its biggest towns, a centre for trades and handicrafts. The local gunsmiths, blacksmiths, casters of cannon and bells, were well known for the excellent quality of their work. The occupation of the people of the time is still evident in the old names of Moscow's streets and lanes, squares and embankments. There are Pushechnaya (Cannon Makers) and Bronnaya (Gunsmith) Streets, Taganskaya (Iron-mon-gers) Square, Ruzheiny (Armoury) and Runovsky (Weavers') Lanes.When almost all the Russian principalities united around Moscow, it grew into a force capable of shaking off the Tartar yoke which Russia had borne for more than 200 years and of repulsing the Lithuanian invasion.After freeing itself, Moscow in the fifteenth century became the economic and political capital of the vast Russian state on the eastern borders of Europe. Moscow soon developed into the cultural centre of all of Russia. The finest craftsmen flocked to the capital from Pskov, Rostov the Great, Vladimir. As a result splendid buildings arose in the Kremlin in place of the palaces which had become old and shabby. Architects from Italy also arrived to take part in the work. It is fortunate that none of the construction or reconstruction projects ever violated the artistic harmony and unity of the Kremlin ensemble. The additions simply contributed new features emphasizing the incomparable, distinctive style of the period. The Kremlin is an example of the old Russian classic style inspired by the traditions of Moscow, Nov-gorod-Pskov, and Vladimir-Suzdal architecture with its simple lines, harmonious colours, supple grace and mo-numentality.In the sixteenth century Moscow was already one of the largest towns in Europe. Foreign visitors used to say that it was bigger than London. Prague or Florence. The Kremlin had become the administrative centre of the Russian capital. A number of magnificent examples of the architecture of the time have come down to us. They include the Bell Tower of Ivan the Great, St Basil's Cathedral, and the Annunciation Cathedral at the Kremlin in its present aspect.The formation of a multi-national centralized state was accompanied by the development of an all-Russian literature, the art of printing and the book trade. The sixteenth century marked the beginnings of opposition to the feudal-serf system. With internecine warfare, the constant threat of foreign invasion, poor grain crops, and ruinous taxation the discontent of the people in June 1547 flared into open revolt. The uprising was savagely suppressed, but it forced Russi's ruling class and the recently enthroned Ivan the Fourth, who subsequently became known as Ivan the Terrible, to take decisive measures to strengthen centralized rule. A terrible disaster struck Moscow in 1571 when the armies of Khan Devlet-Girei of the Crimea burned down the capital city. However, the Khan's second attempt to break through Moscow's defences failed. Exploitation of the people by serf-owners stiffened, class contradictions grew, and popular movements arose repeatedly in Russia and endured for a long period. The struggle of the enslaved peasantry intensified by the hungry years of 1601 and 1603, by dissension among the boyars, and by the Polish and Lithuanian invasions broke out into actual war against feudal oppression. The two-months siege of Moscow by the Peasant Army led by Ivan Bolotnikov, who had the sympathy of the artisans and kholops (serfs), dealt a severe blow to the serf system. The insurrection lasted from June, 1606, to October, 1607. As the years passed the Russian state grew stronger, its cultural life expanded, but the lot of the common people was still hard. In Moscow's Red Square the Tzar's decrees7