French and German Public Opinion on Declared War Aims 1914-1918 [antikvár]

FOREWORD Historians of international relations during the period of the World War have generally neglected the influence of public opinion upon the conduct of foreign affairs Information concerning the formation, expression, and influence of French and German public opinion upon war-time foreign policies, however, is essential to an understanding of the declared war aims of these belligerents, the reactions of their respective peoples to these aims, and the resultant possibilities of peace. Public opinion is evolved from the composite reactions of the people at large, their fundamental attitudes, prejudices, passions, and aspirations being expressed in the definite opinions of their leaders. And the representation of the state of mind of a people at any moment of a great national emergency requires a thorough study of the intricate intellectual, emotional, and spiritual web of their ideas, desires, and ideals. France accepted war with Germany in 1914 firm in the belief that every means for the maintenance of peace compatible with the existence of the repubhc as a Great Power had been exhausted. To the aim of national defense, however, was almost spontaneously added that of the restoration of the lost provinces. Then the restoration of all conquered states and reparation by the enemy for the damage done in all invaded territory appeared as war aims. Throughout the "vague year" of 1915 the French Government stated its purpose to be the gaining of a definite victory and of genuine security through the destruction of Prussian militarism in the cause of the freedom of peoples. By 1917 the further demand for guaranties in the Rhineland, which had been the subject of secret Allied negotiations, was publicly announced by Clemenceau and became a primary official war aim. At this period were also formulated the moral guaranty of a society of nations and the democratization of German institutions. In the historic session of the German Reichstag on August 4, 1914, the Kaiser and the Imperial Chancellor von Bethmann-Hollweg declared that the empire unsheathed the sword to wage a war of national defense. The imperial government then stated specifically that its aims were to conserve the Dual Monarchy, to maintain the position of the Teutonic race in Europe, and to defend Germany against Russia. In 1915 von Bethmann-Hollweg added to these aims : freedom for great and small nationalities ; freedom of the seas ; and guaranties against future invasions. Out of the July 1917 crisis in Germany came the Reichstag resolution for peace without forced acquisitions of territory or indemnities and for mutual understanding and lasting reconciliation among the nations. [ 193 ] [5