Rembrandt and the Bible [antikvár]

Contemporary and later appreciations prove that Rembrandt's engravings were soon met with recogni-tion. Although the appreciation of his paintings has varied throughout the centuries his engravings were always highly praised. Collectors and art experts have always agreed that these works of art are the master-pieces of graphic arts. The technique of copperplate engraving has been known from the 15th century, but it reached its peek in the 17th century. The essence of this method is that the copper plate used for printing is covered with an acid-resistant material and the lines are engraved into this surface. After this acid is spilled over the plate. The liquid erodes the surface only in the engraved lines which is then spread over with paint which remains only in the crevices. In printing the paint will make an impression on the paper, but only from these crevices and thus the lines of the picture become distinct. Rembrandt began to employ the copperplate technique as a young man and after short hesitations he proved to be its master. Not only was he acquainted with the generally used processes, but he himself constantly experimented with new methods, searched for the appropriate means of expression, tried new effects. So Rembrandt is well considered to belong to the greatest masters of graphic arts due to the artistic merit of his works but his innovative technique and modern methods alsó play an important role. One of the sources dating from 1660 mentions that he used a soft, light priming and thus it was easier to draw with the graver. These lines imitated the graceful and airy ink drawings. Sketches, drafts and detailed drawings preceded the final form which was born directly on the copper plate with the help of an engraving needle. Rembrandt employed a new technique when etching the copper plate supported by the initiations of Dutch masters. The plate was dipped into acid and this phase was repeated after having covered parts of the plate with acid-resistant lacquer (polish?). In this way he gained several thick and deep crevices. The aim of this method was to get an engraving with different degrees of light and dark shades instead of an even, unicoloured drawing. On somé plates, however, Rembrandt used a totally different method: he did not work on the whole plate, but on part of it, on somé figure or shape, and consequently the etching of the different motifs was done separately as well. This can be noticed on the first stage of a plate bearing the title "Angel Appear-ing to the Shepherds" he merely sketched the lighter parts in the first phase, while the darker zones were thoroughly worked out. Only in the second phase were the lighter parts developed. From the middle of the 1630s a change can be observed in Rembrandt's technique: when he wanted to get a darker shade he did not use a repeated etching, nor did he engrave new lines into the base-he employed the so-called dry-point technique. He etched his lines directly on the plate so there was no acid to deepen the crevices. These dry-point drawings are somehow clumsier than the former etchings but decidedly mar-ked and finer. The lines, thin as hair, are unbound, and characteristic despite the toughness of the material. They express the artist's personality. For shading he used a thick network of lines with the help of the dry-point technique and this resulted in a deep, fiery-black surface. When the copper plate is etched the graver leaves tiny grains on the edge of the crevices. These grains are alsó covered by paint in printing. This method lends itself particularly well to gain soft, picturesque effects. At first this dry-point technique was employed only for corrections and modifications on Rembrandt's plates. But from the middle of the 1640s it began to dominate over etching and finally he used exclusively this method on his plates. In the second half of the 40s he started using an engraving knife as well as a needle and a dry-point needle. His long, fine, parallel lines served to soften or him the too intensive surface so that the unity of tone should not be lost. When the artist completed his drawing on the copper plate, printing could begin. In contrast to generál custom, this phase was often done by Rembrandt himself, perhaps because he did not trust other masters. He tried different sorts of paper, applied several coats of paint, to acquire the greatest effect for his prints. Often Rembrandt did not consider his cuts completed, not even after printing: he was constantly modifying, altering his copperplates. This is how the so-called "états" (stages) were born. The name was given by art-collectors and it means the different varieties of one and the same plate. These modifications manifested themselves in smaller or greater details, sometimes they modified the whole artistic conception and the new work of art was basically different from its previous variant. Somé plates have few "stages", but there are somé which have more. For example, we know of 13 stages for "Raising of Lazarus". The copper plates of Rembrandt differ each other not only in their artistic technique, but they alsó refiect his ever improving artistic style. Copperplate engraving should not be considered a secondary activity or a mere reproduction of paintings, because creativity manifests itself in these works as well.