The World of Psychology [antikvár]

Introduction to PsychologyLEARNING OBJECTIVES1.1What is naturalistic observation, and what are some of its advantages and limitations? (p. 3)1.2What is the case study method, and for what purposes is it particularly well suited? (p. 4)1.3What are the methods and purpose of survey research? (p. 4)1.4What is a representative sample, and why is it essential in a survey? (p. 5)1.5What is the main advantage of the experimental method? (p. 7)1.6What is the difference between the independent variable and the dependent variable? (p. 8)1.7How do the experimental and control groups differ? (p. 9)1.8What is selection bias, and what technique do researchers use to control for it? (p. 10)1.9What is the placebo effect, and how do researchers control for it? (p. 10)1.10What is experimenter bias, and how is it controlled? (p. 11)1.11What is the correlational method, and when is it used? (p. 13)1.12What is a correlation coefficient? (p. 13)1.13Why must psychological research be replicated? (p. 16)1.14What was Wilhelm Wundt's contribution to psychology? (p. 20)1.15What were the goals and method of structuralism, the first school of psychology? (p. 21)1.16What was the goal of the early school of psychology known as functionalism? (p. 21)1.17How did behaviorism differ from previous schools of psychology? (p. 22)1.18What was the role of the unconscious in psychoanalysis, Freud's approach to psychology? (p. 23)1.19What is the emphasis of Gestalt psychology? (p. 23)1.20What is the focus of humanistic psychology? (p. 24)1.21What are the five major perspectives in psychology today? (p. 26)1.22What are some specialists in psychology, and in what settings are they employed? (p. 27)CHAPTER OVERVIEWThough the definition of psychology has changed over the years, first focusing on mental processes and then on observable behavior, we now define psychology as the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. Three types of research methods that make psychology scientific are described:(1)Descriptive methods include naturalistic observation, laboratory observation, the case study method, and survey research. Surveys typically require the selection of a sample of possible subjects from the broader population. The authors describe how a sample can be selected using a representative or random selection, how questionnaires are used, and why interviews often have an advantage because of the elaboration of details that is possible when a good rapport exists between the subject and the interviewer.(2)The experimental method is the research method that meets the conditions necessary to establish that a cause-effect relationship exists. Experiments are meant to test a hypothesis about the causal relationship between the independent and dependent variables. The useof controls in an experiment is crucial in order to rule out any other variables as possible causes. If an experiment confirms the hypothesis, the next question that must be addressed is whether the results apply to other situations. Several problems can occur in an experiment that influence, or bias, the results. These problems include bias caused by how the control and experimental groups are chosen; the placebo effect, in which the subject behaves according to his or her expectations about the experiment; and experimenter bias, in which the experimenter's expectations influence the subjects' responses. Sometimes the control used in an experiment makes the setting contrived or unnatural. Also, some experiments cannot be conducted on human subjects because of ethical considerations.(3) The correlational method is the research method that analyzes data in order to discover the relationships between variables (relationships other than cause-effect). The authors describe the correlation coefficient, distinguish positive and negative correlations, and introduce the concept of strength. When a correlation is high, theIS-1